India

C

Plants and Animals

In the arid areas that adjoin Pakistan, the flora is sparse and largely herbaceous. Thorny species, including representatives of the genera Capparis (caper) and Zizyphus (jujube), are common. Bamboo occurs in some areas, and the palm is among the few varieties of trees. The wetter Gangetic plain supports many plant species. Vegetation is especially luxuriant in the south-eastern plains, where the mangrove and the sal, a hardwood, flourish.

Many varieties of arctic flora are found on the higher slopes of the Himalaya. The densely forested lower ranges of the Himalaya support numerous species of subtropical plants, notably the orchidaceae. Coniferous species, including cedar and pine, predominate in the north-western Himalaya. To the east, the Himalayan slopes abound with tropical and subtropical vegetation, notably the rhododendron. The oak and magnolia are among the predominant trees. The Malabar Coast of the south-western peninsula and the slopes of the Western Ghats, areas of high rainfall, are thickly wooded. Evergreens, bamboo, and valuable timber varieties, including teak, predominate in this region. Extensive tracts of impenetrable jungle occur in the swampy lowlands and along the lower slopes of the Western Ghats. The vegetation of the Deccan is less luxuriant, but thickets of bamboo, palm, and deciduous trees are found throughout the peninsula.

The forests, plains, hills, and mountains of India are inhabited by a wide variety of animal life. The cat family is well represented, with the tiger and panther, snow and mainland clouded leopard, jungle cat, and, in the Deccan, the cheetah. Lions are also found, though now limited to the Gir National Park in Gujarat. Strenuous national and international efforts to protect the tiger, which was once on the verge of extinction, have resulted in a healthy build-up of populations to several thousand, protected in reserves such as that at Ranthambore, in Rajasthan.

The Asian elephant is found along the north-eastern slopes of the Himalaya and in the remote forests of the Deccan. The rhinoceros, guar, black bear, wolf, jackal, dhole, wild buffalo, wild pig, and several species of ape, antelope, and deer are also indigenous to India. Various species of wild goat and sheep as well as the ibex and the serow (related to the chamois) are found in the Himalaya and other mountainous areas. The pygmy pig, bandicoot rat, and tree mouse are typical of the smaller mammals.

India has many different kinds of snake. Venomous species include the cobra, the daboia, and salt-water snakes. Among non-venomous species, pythons usefully consume destructive rodents. Indigenous reptiles also include the crocodile. India’s birdlife includes parrots, peacocks, kingfishers, and herons. The rivers and coastal waters of India teem with fish, including many edible varieties.

D

Environmental Concerns

India has a strong conservation and environmental protection movement, which has campaigned and lobbied with considerable success against the destruction of habitats through the demands of continuing and rapid industrialization, and population pressures. Examples of campaigns include the “tree huggers” who have fought deforestation in the Himalaya, the prevention of the Silent Valley project in Kerala (a major hydroelectric scheme that would have destroyed the habitat of species unique to the region), and most recently, the long, drawn out, and bitter battle to stop the massive Narmada Dam Project in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. On another front, environmentalist groups have delayed the Tehri project, involving the construction of dams in a highly seismic region of the Himalaya. Among the current environmental concerns in India are deforestation, desertification, lack of access to water, air and water pollution, and the strain placed on natural resources by a huge and growing population.

III

Population

The diverse racial and cultural origins of the people of India are bound intricately with those of the other peoples of the Indian subcontinent, including the inhabitants of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, as well as those further afield. The exact origins of most Indian people are impossible to determine because of the large variety of races and cultures that have invaded and been assimilated into the subcontinent. However, elements of three major racial groups—the Caucasoid, the Australoid, and the Mongoloid—may be found in present-day India. At times, geography and environment have encouraged successive waves of migrants to mingle with the indigenous peoples. However, environmental and historical factors have also favoured the coexistence in India of many different peoples with distinct physical and cultural characteristics. This is reflected in India’s linguistic diversity; the country has 18 major languages and more than 1,000 minor ones (see Indian Languages).

Approximately 8 per cent of the total population belongs to more than 300 so-called scheduled tribes. These tribal or aboriginal groups are racially and culturally distinct from the majority Indian population and also tend to vary considerably among themselves. Their name derives from their inclusion on a “schedule” that gives them certain constitutional protection, representation, and rights.

Broadly speaking, the majority of non-tribal Indian peoples are predominantly Caucasoid in features, showing considerable variation in skin colour. Mongoloid features are seen in the hill peoples of the very north, such as the Nagas. Australoid features are also seen among the tribal groups, such as the Santal of Bangla.

The majority of people in the north and east speak Indo-Aryan languages such as Assamese, Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi, and Bengali. The influence of close contact with Persia and the Mughal period are apparent in the language as well as the architecture, clothing, and other aspects of life in the north. These languages derive from Sanskrit, now essentially a dead language, but still used in the reading of sacred texts and other religious ceremonies. In contrast, the Dravidian languages of the south, such as Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, derive primarily from Tamil, also a language of the south, although Malayalam contains a considerable number of Sanskrit words. All these languages boast substantial and rich literatures. Of the 18 languages recognized in the constitution, one, Manipuri, the language of the far northern state of Manipur, is Sino-Tibetan in origin.

Among the tribal peoples, often living in relatively isolated hilly regions, a number have maintained their unique cultures and customs, although the encroaching of the mainstream population has caused considerable assimilation and erosion of traditional ways of life.

A

Caste

The Indian constitution sets out the resolve to eradicate the age-old system of caste, which has denied for centuries the opportunity of social advancement to the lowest stratum of the system, the Dalits (formerly “Untouchables” or Harijans, “children of God”, as Gandhi named them). Considerable steps were taken after independence actively to promote the education and welfare of these depressed classes, most notably through a system of positive discrimination—by assigning a quota of up to 50 per cent of places in universities and professional institutions to the “scheduled” castes. Old traditions die hard, however, and despite these efforts and those of individuals such as Gandhi, Ambedkar, and others, prejudice, mainly in the social sphere, remains. Nevertheless, individuals from scheduled-caste backgrounds are now found in all walks of life and include eminent scientists, judges, and politicians. In recent years, as a business-led, consumer culture evolves, with status counted more by material wealth than family and tradition, the hold of caste is declining, with many inter-caste marriages, especially among the urban middle classes. In rural India, however, tradition shows little sign of changing in this regard.

In the political sphere, parties and organizations based on caste lines have often been vociferous in the demanding of rights and the protection of the interests of their communities. Politicians and parties frequently seek to secure the votes of particular jatis (sub-castes). Allegiances, however, tend to be fluid and often based on expediency. The continuation of the system of positive discrimination in university entrance has caused friction with non-scheduled-caste students, who claim it has resulted in intolerably high entrance requirements for other castes and lowered standards overall.

B

Population Characteristics

India has about 16 per cent of the world’s population. Its population is 1,147,995,900 (2008 estimate). The overall population density is about 386 people per sq km (1,000 per sq mi). Many births and deaths are unregistered, but official data suggest that the birth rate in 2008 was about 22 per 1,000. Life expectancy averaged 69 years. Approximately 71 per cent of India’s population lives in rural areas. Though living conditions in many areas have improved—for example through the provision of clean water—most people are still poor. About one third of the population lives on or below the UN poverty line; less than 3 per cent of Indian households have an income of more than US$2,500 a year.