Ashoka

I

Introduction

Ashoka (269-232 bc), third king of the Maurya dynasty, who ruled virtually the whole of the Indian subcontinent. He was unique among emperors in world history, for, after successfully concluding a major military campaign, he was so disturbed by the suffering that it had caused that he forsook war and thereafter endorsed non-violence and peaceful persuasion in consolidating his vast empire.

The major source of documentation for his reign is the succession of edicts that he issued to his subjects in every part of his empire. These edicts, in Prakrit for the Indian population and in Greek and Aramaic for the people in the north-west of his empire who were Hellenistic Greeks and Iranians, were inscribed on rock surfaces or on specially polished columns with handsomely sculpted capitals. It is through the location of these edicts—as well as by archaeological excavations of artefacts, monuments, and occupation levels at urban sites associated with the Mauryas—that the extent of Ashoka’s empire has been established. In one of his edicts, Ashoka named as his contemporaries five Hellenistic kings, with some of whom he had diplomatic contacts, and this has provided a chronological cross-reference for his reign.

Buddhist texts composed in Pali (see Indian Languages) by monks in Sri Lanka, and in a hybrid form of Sanskrit in north-western India, colour the narrative of his life and depict him as concerned closely with the spread of Buddhism, which was then a relatively new religion. One of these narratives associates him with astutely handling a rebellion in the city of Takshasila, in Gandhara, an ancient region in north-western India where the citizens objected to the oppression of the local officers. Ashoka’s administrative experience may have begun with the control of Gandhara. Another source describes him in a similar capacity in central India, governing from the city of Ujjain.

II

Ashoka’s Empire

Ashoka’s grandfather, Chandragupta, had established a large kingdom in northern India and this was further expanded by Ashoka’s father, Bindusara. Not being the eldest son, Ashoka had to fight his brothers to reach the throne, possibly with the help of some ministers in Pataliputra (modern Patna), the capital of the Mauryan Empire. This may have resulted in an interregnum of four years between his father’s death and his formal acceptance as emperor. On becoming king, Ashoka was required to rule a vast empire stretching from north-eastern India to the southern border of modern Karnataka, eastward to the Ganges delta, and to the north-west, incorporating southern and eastern Afghanistan.

It was earlier thought that the empire was uniformly controlled by a highly centralized bureaucracy functioning from Pataliputra. Historians are now suggesting that the degree of control may have been different in different areas. The region around the capital, which was the ancient kingdom of Magadha, was obviously more directly administered and there would also have been close communication with the major cities in other areas such as Takshashila, Ujjain, Vidisha, Tosali, and Suvarnagiri. Peripheral areas may have been more loosely controlled.

After eight years as king, Ashoka conquered Kalinga (in modern Orissa), both to control a part of the subcontinent that was rich in ores and agrarian revenue, and to secure the sea route along the east coast to the Krishna valley, where major gold fields and veins of semi-precious stones were located. His remorse at the suffering caused by this campaign led him to reject violent conquest as a means to any end. His interest in Buddhism, which had begun earlier, gradually increased.

III

Ashoka’s Edicts

It was after the 12th year of his reign that Ashoka began to issue his edicts, in which he referred to his policies, concerns, and administrative changes, and his aspirations of instituting a new social ethic.

Ashoka’s edicts fall into various categories. A small number relate to the activities of the Buddhist sangha, or order, and of these some are addressed to the local officers and some to the monks. Those known as the Minor Edicts describe Ashoka’s general involvement with Buddhism, among other matters. The Greek and Aramaic versions are useful in shedding fresh light on the meaning of certain words in Prakrit: for example, it has been debated whether Ashoka’s reference to dharma is to the Buddha’s teaching or to a wider understanding of social ethics, as is suggested by the term “eusebeia” in the Greek version.

The Major Rock Edicts and the Pillar Edicts are more extensive and more detailed. Apart from emphasizing the importance of tolerance in relation to diverse ideologies, Ashoka’s definition of social ethics is based on a respect for all religious teachers, and on a harmonious relationship between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees. Welfare for his subjects was to lie in the building of an extensive network of roads lined with shade-giving trees and provided with wells and rest houses at regular intervals. (The network of roads was useful both to the administration of the Mauryan Empire and to trade.) Medicinal herbs were also planted and, with the aim of improving conditions for his subjects, special officers, the mahamairas, were appointed to attend to their various problems and additional powers given to rural and judicial administrators. The Pillar Edicts, which Ashoka issued in the 27th and 28th years of his reign, were a review of his activities and a testament to his policies.

Whereas Ashoka is largely ignored in Brahmanic sources, in Buddhist texts he is projected as a pious Buddhist king whose principal concern was the well-being of the sangha. Among the legends of his later years are stories about the evil acts of his young queen: however, these accounts, in which there is considerable exaggeration, were meant to be read both as morality tales and as historical accounts. Ashoka’s legendary fame in Buddhist societies arises from his later association with the concept of the chakraqvartin, or the righteous ruler in whose reign the wheel of law rolls across the kingdom, ensuring the welfare of all.