Sicily

V

History

Sicily was inhabited at the beginning of historical times by a people called the Siculi or Sicani. It is believed that they crossed over to the island from the southern tip of Italy. The recorded history of Sicily began with the establishment of Greek and Phoenician colonies. The earliest Greek colony, Naxos, was founded in 735 bc; the latest, Agrigentum (modern Agrigento), about 580 bc. Agrigentum and Gela early became prominent; under the rule of Phalaris, Agrigentum became for a short time probably the most powerful colony in Sicily. Gela, under a succession of able tyrants such as Gelon, forced most of the other Greek cities on the island into subjugation.

The Carthaginians first arrived on the island in 536 bc, but because of the growing wealth and power of the Greek cities, they were long confined to the north-west; the principal Carthaginian colonies were Panormus, Motya, and Solois. In a battle at Himera in 480 bc the Carthaginian army was completely routed by Gelon, and the Carthaginian leader, Hamilcar, was slain. The Gelonian dynasty at Syracuse fell in 466 bc, and for 50 years Sicily had peace. In 410 bc war was renewed between Carthaginians and Greeks for possession of the island. The Carthaginians were successful, but the vigorous reign (405-367 bc) of the tyrant Dionysius the Elder at Syracuse put a check to Carthaginian conquest. In 246 bc Carthaginian Sicily became a Roman province during the first Punic War, as did the rest of the island in 210 bc. The chief events of the Roman history of Sicily were the two insurrections of slaves, in 135-132 bc and in 102-99 bc; the infamous propraetorship of the Roman politician Gaius Verres between 74 and 70 bc; occupation of the island in 42 bc by the Roman soldier Pompey the Younger; conquest by the Vandals under Gaiseric in ad 440; his cession of the island to the Ostrogoth leader Theodoric; and recovery by the Byzantine general Belisarius in ad 535 for the Byzantine Empire.

The year 827 marked the beginning of the Saracen occupation of Sicily. In 1061 the Normans, under Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger I of Sicily, began the conquest of Sicily, completed in 1091. In 1127 Roger II, Count of Sicily, was recognized as Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and in 1130 he assumed the title of King of Sicily. The domain of Roger II was sometimes called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, or the Two Sicilies, because the southern part of the Italian mainland was known as “Sicily on this side of Cape Faro”.

A

Dynastic Rule

In 1194 the Norman rule was succeeded by that of the House of Hohenstaufen, whose most illustrious member was the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. As Frederick I of Sicily, he presided over a brilliant court and, in 1231, issued the antifeudal Constitutions of Melfi, which centralized authority in Sicily. Hohenstaufen rule did not long survive his death in 1250; with papal support, Charles I, Count of Anjou and the brother of Louis IX of France, seized control of the kingdom in 1266. In 1282 Sicilians revolted against his oppressive rule. The revolt, known as the Sicilian Vespers, began with a massacre of French soldiers. Soon thereafter, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was divided; Naples remained under the control of the House of Anjou, but the island of Sicily became independent and chose as king Pedro III, King of Aragón, who was connected by marriage with the House of Hohenstaufen. In 1296 the island was separated from Aragón; for more than a century it was ruled by a branch of the Aragonese dynasty and was then reunited with that kingdom.

Ferdinand V of Castile, who had also been King of Sicily since 1468, made himself master of the kingdom of Naples in 1504, and the Spanish Crown retained both countries until the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713). By the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) Sicily was separated from Naples and handed over to Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy, who ceded it to Austria seven years later, receiving in exchange the island of Sardinia.

In 1734 the Bourbon Don Carlos, later Charles III, King of Spain, invaded Naples and Sicily, and in 1735 he was crowned and was recognized by the Treaty of Vienna as Carlo VII, King of the Two Sicilies. After the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), Italy enjoyed almost 50 years of peace; in Sicily progress was made along administrative, economic, and educational lines. The upheaval of the French Revolution brought new troubles. The coalition against the French republic was joined by Ferdinand I, King of the Two Sicilies.

B

Napoleonic Wars

In December 1798 the Neapolitans attempted to drive the French out of the Papal States. They were thrown back, Naples was taken (January 1799), and the Parthenopean republic was created. In the same year Ferdinand was reinstated with the assistance of the British fleet. In 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte conquered the Kingdom of Naples and placed his brother Joseph on the throne. Ferdinand continued to reign in Sicily. In 1808 Joseph Bonaparte was succeeded by Joachim Murat, King of Naples; after the fall of Murat in 1815, Ferdinand was restored in Naples. At the close of 1816 Ferdinand united the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily into the single Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and promptly reneged on his promises of reform.

C

Royal Struggle and Union with Italy

In 1820 a military uprising took place in the Neapolitan dominions, joined by the revolutionary group called the Carbonari, to secure a constitutional government. Ferdinand yielded to the demand, even though he had agreed with Austria to make no constitutional concessions. At the same time a revolutionary movement for Sicilian autonomy took place in the island. The congress of the Great Powers at Laibach (1821) charged Austria to restore Ferdinand's absolute power. Ferdinand was succeeded in 1825 by his son Francis I, who was succeeded by his son Ferdinand II in 1830. After 1843 the republican theories of the Italian patriot Giuseppe Mazzini took a strong hold in southern Italy. At the beginning of 1848 Sicily rose in insurrection and forced Ferdinand II to grant a representative constitution to his subjects. This did not satisfy the Sicilians, however, and they declared Ferdinand deposed. In his Neapolitan dominions, Ferdinand, aided by reactionary elements, fought successfully against the revolutionary movement then sweeping through Italy. In September 1848, his forces entered Sicily. In May 1849, Palermo capitulated, and the revolution on the island ended. Ferdinand inflicted his vengeance upon the rebels and was checked only by British intervention. In 1859 Ferdinand II was succeeded by his son Francis II. In 1860, after northern Italy was freed from the rule of Austria, the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi landed in Sicily with a thousand volunteers and won control of the island. Sicily was then incorporated into the new kingdom of Italy (1861).

Dominated by Piedmontese, however, the national government possessed little understanding of the south. Efforts to centralize power, accompanied by burdensome taxes and military conscription, intensified southern resentment and led to an abortive insurrection in Palermo in 1866. Relations between north and south did not improve when the Sicilian-born Francesco Crispi headed national governments (1887-1891; 1893-1896). Challenged by leagues of rebellious workers and peasants, in 1894 Crispi proclaimed martial law in Sicily. Mutual suspicion characterized north-south relations until 1915, when Italy entered World War I.

After the war and the 1922 Fascist takeover of the government, Benito Mussolini launched a ruthless campaign to destroy the Mafia, a loose alliance of criminal elements, governed by a strict code of silence, which had conducted campaigns of lawlessness and violence in Sicily since the 15th century. He might have succeeded had he not been drawn into World War II. On the night of July 9-10, 1943, Sicily was invaded from North Africa by American, Canadian, and British forces; 38 days later its conquest was completed. The Sicilian campaign resulted in Mussolini's fall from power and, a few weeks later, the capitulation of the Italian government.

D

Developments after World War II

Under the constitution of 1948 Sicily became a locally autonomous region of Italy, with extensive powers of self-government. A regional council, composed of counsellors and directed by a president, is popularly elected.

The process of industrialization in Sicily has not absorbed the surplus workforce, and many Sicilians have migrated to northern Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and, to a lesser degree, North and South America and Australia. At the same time, Sicily has experienced a resurgence of the Mafia, which has become a serious problem throughout modern Italy.