Mfecane

I

Introduction

Mfecane, period of upheaval in southern Africa in the early decades of the 19th century, characterized by widespread warfare between chiefdoms centred on what is now eastern South Africa, and the subsequent mass migrations of numerous other chiefdoms. The term mfecane comes from a Nguni word that means “the crushing”. It is also known as difaqane, the Southern Sotho equivalent. The mfecane reshaped the political and cultural map of southern Africa, as new kingdoms and chiefdoms were formed while others were engulfed or shattered.

II

Causes of the Mfecane

For years, historians generally believed that the mfecane was caused by the emergence of the aggressive Zulu kingdom. Recently, however, some historians have contended that the emphasis on Zulu expansion has obscured the role that European colonialism may have played in triggering the violence. While the causes of the mfecane are still being debated, most historians agree that the expansion of some chiefdoms in south-eastern Africa and the centralization of others brought emerging states into conflict.

One reason for the conflict may have been intensifying competition for land. Maize was introduced to the region by the early 18th century, and as it became a plentiful staple, population density grew. By the end of the century, overfarming and overgrazing had depleted the amount of usable land. Local chiefdoms, whose economies were based on cattle, were forced to extend and defend their control over year-round grazing lands in order to survive.

Another reason for the conflict may have been the destabilizing effect the global trade in slaves and ivory had on the region. Colonists from Britain’s Cape Colony, to the south-west, had conducted raids into the region to acquire labour since the 17th century. In the same period, Portuguese traders based at ports on the south-eastern coast of Africa fed an increasing demand for slave labour on South American plantations and hunted extensively for ivory for the international market. In response to these incursions, local chiefdoms sought to establish control over the lucrative trade routes and, possibly, to organize defences against slave raids. This led to military expansion and the development of new social and political structures.

A key aspect of this process was the development of the amabutho system. In this system, all the young men of a chiefdom were grouped into regiments (amabutho) according to their age. The amabutho served multiple purposes. They were used as labour, to police the chiefdom’s subjects, and to defend the chiefdom against outside enemies. For their service, the amabutho required reward, particularly in the form of cattle, and this could best be gained by raiding neighbouring peoples. Additional cattle required wider grazing lands, so raids inevitably turned into wars of territorial conquest. In the early years of the 19th century, conflicts over cattle and land were sharpened by a major drought.

III

Wars, Migrations, and New States

The course of the mfecane is a complicated one, with clashes leading to migrations, migrations leading to the rise of new states, and the rise of new states leading to further clashes and migrations. The central clashes of the mfecane, those that caused the initial migrations, took place in an area that would later be known as Zululand, in what is now eastern South Africa. This area is roughly bounded by the Thukela (Tugela) River to the south-west, the Phongolo (Pongola) River to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the south-east.

A

Initial Clashes

At the start of the 19th century the region was divided into numerous small chiefdoms, the most powerful being the Ndwandwe and Mthethwa. Starting in the late 1810s, conflict between these two chiefdoms began to dislodge their lesser neighbours, such as the Ngwane. The Ngwane people fled, splitting into two groups. One group, led by Sobhuza, moved into the mountains north of the Phongolo River and began building up a large state that would eventually become the Swazi kingdom (see Swaziland). The other Ngwane group, led by Matiwane, fled to the west, to the foothills of the Drakensberg Mountains. There they defeated the Hlubi chiefdom, scattering them in several directions. Near the Indian Ocean coast, the Qwabe consolidated their territory in defence, pushing out the Thuli and Cele. These chiefdoms were forced southward across the Thukela River into what later became Natal.