China

K

Cultural Institutions

Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou play leading cultural roles in China; most of the renowned museums, theatres, and cultural displays are in these cities.

Beijing remains the cultural heart of the nation. Located in the vicinity of the famous Tiananmen Square are the Forbidden City, formerly the residence of the emperor and now a museum open to the public; the Mao Zedong Memorial Hall; and the Museum of the Chinese Revolution. Beijing was also the location of the famous “Democracy Wall” and its so-called big-character posters that were significant (until officially banned in the late 1970s) in the expression of public opinion about governmental policy shifts after Mao’s death in 1976. The Summer Palace, the Temple of Heaven, the Ming dynasty tombs, and the Great Wall are all near Beijing; these great monuments of the Ming and Qing dynasties provide a cultural focus for the increasingly mobile Chinese population.

In Shanghai are the Museum of Art and History, which houses one of China’s finest art collections, and the Museum of Natural Sciences. Also here is the Garden of the Mandarin Yu, which exemplifies a significant programme of government support of the arts; after 1949 the Communist government opened many formerly private homes, gardens, and parks of the wealthy, making them into public museums. They have become popular in all cities as places to stroll, meet for tea, and chat with friends and foreigners, and as places to be educated about the class differences between the wealthy and the poor before 1949.

Guangzhou is the home of one of China’s major zoos; the Guangzhou Museum; Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall; Yuexiu Park, with its Ming dynasty Zhenhai Pagoda; the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees; and the Huaisheng Mosque, which was founded in ad 627. Near Xi’an (Sian) is one of the most impressive works of Chinese antiquity—a terracotta army of more than 6,000 life-size figures that were found in the tomb of the Qin emperor Shi Huangdi, who died in 210 bc.

The promotion of national self-awareness since the 1949 revolution has led virtually every city to establish some sort of cultural monument to its role in the development of China. In cities where no formal museums exist, usually a former estate has been turned into an open garden or tearoom, giving the cities an increasingly urbane character. Many national monuments were destroyed during the iconoclasm of the Cultural Revolution; more recently, the Communist Party has turned to promotion of Chinese culture and national character in an attempt to shore up its own legitimacy.

IV

Economy

For more than 2,000 years the Chinese economy operated under a type of feudal system; land was concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of landowners whose livelihood depended on rents from their peasant tenants. Further adding to the peasant farmers’ burden were agricultural taxes levied by the imperial government and crop yields subject to drought and floods. Early industry and commerce were dominated by government monopolies and other forms of state control. By the 11th century ad under the Song dynasty, China had developed a sophisticated commercial economy, with paper money and emerging forms of banking. However, under the Ming dynasty innovation lapsed. Under the Qing dynasty, China enjoyed another age of great prosperity and expanding population, but this was followed by economic stagnation and internal strife.

The conclusion of the Opium Wars in 1860 formally initiated a period of Western penetration of China from the coastal treaty ports. Railways were constructed, and some Western-style industrial development was begun. Such activity had little impact, however, on the overall Chinese economy. In effect, China was carved up into a number of competing colonial spheres of influence. Japan, which tried to attach China to its East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in the 1930s and 1940s, was able to create only isolated nodes of a modern industrialized economy.

The Chinese Communist Party emerged in the 1920s in the midst of a mounting economic crisis caused by foreign intervention and increased landlord influence in the countryside. For more than two decades, it expanded its control over large rural areas by introducing an agrarian programme based on the control of rent and usury, and by giving power to peasant associations. On October 1, 1949, the Communist Party successfully established a unified national government and economy on the mainland for the first time since the end of the imperial period in 1912. From 1949 to 1952 the emphasis was on halting inflation and ending food shortages and unemployment. The new government initiated a land reform programme that redistributed land to 300 million poor peasants. Under the first five-year plan (1953-1957), 92 per cent of the agricultural population was organized into cooperative farms. In 1958 the rural people’s communes were established, and these dominated agriculture in China until the early 1980s. The commune was based on the collective ownership of all land and major tools by its members, who produced mainly to meet state planning targets and who were rewarded according to the work they performed, although basic necessities were guaranteed to all members.

In the urban-industrial sector, state ownership of property and of industrial and commercial enterprises was gradually extended. Industry grew steadily from heavy investment under the first five-year plan, and the state-owned sector achieved an overwhelming importance. The second five-year plan was introduced in 1958, and in the summer of that year the regime embarked on its much-publicized Great Leap Forward. This programme was characterized by large investments in heavy industry and the establishment of small-scale versions of such industries as steel refining. The programme, however, caused great disruptions in economic management and in rational economic growth, to say nothing of mass starvation leading to an estimated 20 million deaths, and in 1960 the Great Leap Forward had to be abandoned. The Chinese economy then entered a period of readjustment, but by 1965 production in many fields again approached the level of the late 1950s. The third five-year plan began in 1966, but both agricultural and industrial production were severely curtailed by the effects of the Cultural Revolution; a fourth five-year plan was introduced in 1971 as the economy began its recovery.

After eliminating the vestiges of the Cultural Revolution in 1976, China’s leaders decided to move at a faster pace on all economic fronts to make up for the loss suffered in the preceding ten years. A fifth five-year programme was begun in 1976 but was interrupted in 1978, when the Four Modernizations programme was launched. It called for the “all-round modernization of agriculture, industry, national defence, and science and technology by the end of the century so that the economy can take its place in the front ranks of the world”. A ten-year plan for 1976 to 1985 stressed improvement in economic management and a larger role for private and collectively owned (as opposed to state-owned) enterprises. This programme was superseded by a more modest ten-year plan for 1981 to 1990, but efforts to attract Western technology and investment continued, as did a programme of incentives to increase agricultural production. Policies introduced in October 1984 called for further decentralization of economic planning and for increased reliance on market forces to determine the prices of consumer goods. The five-year plan for 1986 to 1990 anticipated an annual economic growth rate of 7 per cent, but the economy slowed after the political crackdown in 1989. The slowdown, however, was temporary, and the Chinese economy expanded rapidly during the early 1990s as the government continued to ease controls; in 1992 the economy grew by about 13 per cent and in 1994 by 12 per cent. Foreign investment capital became a major factor in growth, with US$30 million of investment in 1994. This rapid growth has caused some problems, such as high inflation rates in urban areas and increasing economic inequalities between regions and social groups.

The gross national product (GNP) of China in 2004 was some US$1,938 billion (World Bank figure), or about US$2,000 per capita, though these figures are regarded as more unreliable than for most developed countries. Agricultural output (which also includes some small-scale industries in rural areas, forestry, and fishing) accounts for about 11.7 per cent of national income, and industrial output (which includes manufacturing, mining, electricity generation, and building and construction) accounts for 48.4 per cent. Between 1965 and 1979 the gross domestic product grew at a rate of 6.4 per cent a year, and between 1980 and 1988 the increase was 10.3 per cent annually. The growth rate dipped below 4 per cent in 1989, but returned to well above 10 per cent annually in the early and mid-1990s.

A

Agricultural Activity

Traditionally the economic mainstay of China, agriculture remains the most important sector of the national economy, supporting the majority of the population, though its importance is decreasing. Only about 10 per cent of China’s total area is arable (mostly located in eastern China), and nearly all this land is under cultivation. Almost half the cultivated land is irrigated; indeed, China has more irrigated land than any other country. Despite great gains in annual output since 1949, rapid population increases have made per capita increases much less significant. For example, between 1952 and 1979, the annual grain output expanded by 103 per cent, but per capita grain production increased by only 20 per cent. By 1979, although new areas were brought under cultivation (especially in Dongbei and north-western China), the loss of cultivated land to non-agricultural uses was even more rapid, and with the great increase in population, the per capita average was reduced from 0.18 hectares (0.45 acres) in 1949 to only 0.11 hectares (0.26 acres).

The consistent rise in output and yield in China can be attributed in part to increased efficiency. By 1979 China’s rural population of approximately 838 million had been organized into about 52,000 people’s communes. As a socio-economic unit the commune received production targets from the state and ensured that these targets were met. The commune was divided into several production brigades, each of which was subdivided into production teams. Each of these levels could hold land, tools, and other production materials under communal ownership, and each carried out a range of activities. Some six million production teams represented the basic accounting units of the system.

Under the commune system it was possible to organize large-scale agricultural experimentation for scientific farming, to plant crops in areas where soil and other natural conditions are most favourable, and to develop irrigation and drainage on an efficient scale. Although land was collectively owned, each rural household usually had access to a small private plot, which it was free to use as it pleased. Autonomy was also granted to production teams and individual households to market products after official targets were met.

In the early 1980s, in an effort to erase China’s perennial food deficit while allowing an increase in average per capita food consumption, the Chinese government once again restructured the agricultural sector. The system of communes and production brigades was largely dismantled, and the household became the principal unit of agricultural production. Under this “responsibility system”, each household, after contracting with local authorities to produce its quota of specified crops, was free to sell any additional output on the free market. Such sales represented about 60 per cent of Chinese agricultural output in the late 1980s.

B

Crops and Livestock

About 80 per cent of the sown area of China is devoted to food crops. The most important is rice, which occupies about one third of the total cultivated area. It is grown for the most part south of the Huai River, notably in the middle and lower valley of the Yangzi River, in the Pearl River delta in the Guangzhou region, and in the Red Basin of Sichuan. In 2006 the annual production of rice was about 184 million tonnes.

The second most important food crop is wheat, which is grown mainly north of the Huai River. The chief wheat-growing areas are the North China Plain and the valleys of the Wei and Fen rivers in the loess region. Although the area of wheat cultivated is nearly as large as that of rice, the yield is lower. The wheat crop in 2006 was about 104 million tonnes. Kaoliang (a sorghum) and millet are important food crops in North China and Dongbei. Kaoliang is also used as an animal feed and converted into alcohol for a beverage; the stalks are utilized to make paper and as a roofing material. Maize occupies about 20 per cent of the cultivated area. Oats are important chiefly in Nei Monggol and in the west, notably in Tibet. Production in 2006 included (in tonnes): maize, 146 million; kaoliang, 2 million; millet, 1.82 million; barley, 3 million; and oats (1995 estimate), 600,000.

Other food crops include sweet potatoes, white potatoes, and various fruits and vegetables. Sweet potatoes predominate in the south and white potatoes in the north. Fruit ranges from such tropical varieties as pineapples and bananas, grown on the island of Hainan, to apples and pears, grown in the northern provinces of Liaoning and Shandong. Citrus fruits, particularly oranges and tangerines, are major products of South China.

Oil seeds play a major role in Chinese agriculture, supplying edible and industrial oils and an important share of exports. The most important oil crop is the soya bean, which occupies about 8 per cent of the total cultivated area; it is grown mainly in North China and Dongbei. Soya bean production was 16 million tonnes in 2006. China is also one of the world’s leading producers of peanuts, with production in 2006 of about 15 million tonnes. Peanuts are grown in Shandong and Hebei. Other important oil crops are sesame and sunflower seeds and rapeseed. A valuable oil is supplied also by the tung tree. More than half the tung oil produced in China originates in Sichuan.

Tea is a traditional export crop of China. Still one of the major tea producers, China produces more than 20 per cent of the world supply; its output was 1,049,500 tonnes in 2006. The principal tea plantations are on the hillsides of the middle Yangzi River valley and in the south-eastern provinces of Fujian and Zhejiang.

China obtains sugar both from sugar cane and from sugar beet. Sugar cane is grown mainly in the provinces of Guangdong and Sichuan. Sugar beet, a relatively new crop for the country, is raised in the Dongbei province of Heilongjiang and on irrigated land in Nei Monggol: the crop in 2006 was about 11 million tonnes.

The Communist government of China has given increasing attention to the expansion of industrial crops for the textile industry. The most important of these crops is cotton; about 6.73 million tonnes of cotton lint were produced in 2006, making China one of the world’s leading cotton producers. Cotton, which can be grown in almost all parts of China, is raised principally in the North China Plain, the loess region, the Yangzi River delta, and the middle Yangzi plain. The North China Plain yields about half the country’s total cotton output.

Other fibres are ramie and flax, which are used for linen and other fine cloths; and jute and hemp, which are made into sacks and rope. Ramie, a native Chinese herb similar to hemp, is grown chiefly in the Yangzi River valley; flax is a northern crop. The main jute-growing areas are Zhejiang and Guangdong. Another traditional Chinese product is raw silk. Sericulture (silkworm-raising) is common in the central and southern areas, notably in the Yangzi delta.

China maintains a large livestock population. Pigs are numerous; they numbered about 511 million in 2006. The country is the leading exporter of hog bristles. In the western areas, livestock raising by nomadic herders often constitutes the principal rural occupation. Most of the herds are made up of sheep, goats, and camels. In the highlands of Tibet the yak is a source of food and fuel (the dung is burned), and its hair and skin provide materials for shelter and clothing. The estimated livestock population in 2006 included about 174 million sheep, 199 million goats, 118 million cattle, 22.8 million water buffalo, and 7.40 million horses.

C

Agricultural Planning

Given the tremendous pressure on agricultural land in China, rational planning of land use is of prime importance. An overemphasis on grain growing during the 1960s and 1970s led to elimination of some crops, orchards, and trees, neglect of animal husbandry, and environmental damage. The government has since promoted a mixed-farming economy that is in accord with local environmental conditions and that also provides cash income. Grain price controls were lifted in 1992-1993, but reinstated in 1994 after rapid rises.

Agricultural mechanization is actively pursued, although it remains in the early stages of development and is considered impractical in many places because of the relatively small size of the cultivated areas. Flood control and irrigation projects, which include the construction of dams, canals, and reservoirs, have been accomplished on a large scale since the 1950s. In the same period important changes have also occurred in cropping patterns in China. With the development of water resources and a more intensive use of fertilizer, a second crop could be planted along the three river valleys on the North China Plain. The middle and lower reaches of the Yangzi Valley, already a double-cropped paddy area, were made to yield three crops of paddy each year. More recently, however, the possibility of returning to the two-crop pattern of cultivation has been discussed, because a third crop involves high fertilizer expenditure and a tight farming schedule.

To supplement agricultural production, the various levels of government operate more than 2,000 state farms. There are large-scale units run for the purpose of agricultural experimentation and for commercial production of certain economic crops and foodstuffs for urban markets or export. They are usually located in virgin lands or in newly reclaimed areas where the rural population density is not great and modern machinery may be used effectively.