II.

Land and Resources

More than half of Italy consists of the Italian Peninsula, a long projection of the continental mainland. Shaped like a boot, the Italian Peninsula extends generally south-east into the Mediterranean Sea. From north-west to south-east, the country is about 1,145 km (710 mi) long; with the addition of the southern peninsular extremity, which extends north to south, it is about 1,360 km (845 mi) long. The maximum width of the mainland portion of Italy is about 610 km (380 mi) in the north; the maximum width of the peninsula is about 240 km (150 mi). On the northern frontiers are the Alps, which extend in a wide arc from Ventimiglia on the west to Gorizia on the east, and include such high peaks as Monte Cervino (4,478 m/14,692 ft) and Monte Rosa (4,634 m/15,203 ft). The highest point in Italy is near the summit of Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco), on the border of Italy, France, and Switzerland; the peak, located in France, is 4,810 m (15,781 ft). Between the Alps and the Apennines, which form the backbone of the Italian Peninsula, spreads the broad Plain of Lombardy, comprising the valley of the River Po. The northern Apennines project from the Maritime Alps along the Gulf of Genoa to the sources of the River Tiber. Monte Cimone (2,163 m/7,097 ft) is the highest summit of the northern Apennines. The central Apennines, beginning at the source of the Tiber, consist of several chains. In the eastern portion of this rugged mountain district is Monte Corno (2,914 m/9,560 ft), the highest Apennine peak. The southern Apennines stretch south-east from the valley of the River Sangro to the coast of the Gulf of Taranto, where they assume a more southerly direction. High peaks of the Apennine ranges of the Calabrian Peninsula, as the southern extremity of the Italian Peninsula is known, include Botte Donato (1,929 m/6,329 ft) and Montalto (1,957 m/6,422 ft). The Apennines form the watershed of the Italian Peninsula. The main uplifts are bordered by less elevated districts, known collectively as the sub-Apennine region.

About one third of the total land surface of Italy consists of plains, of which the greatest single tract is the Plain of Lombardy. The coast of Italy along the northern Adriatic Sea is low and sandy, bordered by shallow waters and, except at Venice, not readily accessible to ocean-going vessels. From a point near Rimini going southwards, the east coast of the peninsula is fringed by spurs of the Apennines. Along the middle of the west coast, however, are three stretches of low and marshy land, the Campagna di Roma, the Pontine Marshes, and the Maremma.

The western coast of Italy is broken up by bays, gulfs, and other indentations, which provide a number of natural anchorages. In the north-west is the Gulf of Genoa, the harbour of the important commercial city of Genoa. Naples, another leading west-coast port, is situated on the beautiful Bay of Naples, dominated by the volcano Vesuvius. A little further south is the Gulf of Salerno, at the head of which stands the port of Salerno. The south-eastern end of the peninsula is deeply indented by the Gulf of Taranto, which divides the so-called heel of Italy (ancient Calabria) from the toe (modern Calabria). The Apennine range continues beneath the narrow Strait of Messina and traverses the island of Sicily, where the volcano Etna, 3,323 m (10,902 ft) high, is located. Another active volcano rises on Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands, north-west of the Strait of Messina. In addition to volcanic activity, Italy is also plagued by frequent minor earthquakes, especially in the southern regions.

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Italy has many rivers, of which the Po and the Adige are the most important. The Po, about 670 km (415 mi) long, is navigable from Turin to its outlet on the Adriatic Sea and with its tributaries affords about 965 km (600 mi) of inland waterways. The Adige, about 355 km (220 mi) long, enters Italy from the Austrian province of Tirol, flows east, and, like the Po, empties into the Adriatic. The beds of these rivers are slowly being elevated by alluvial deposits from the mountains.

The rivers of the Italian Peninsula are shallow, often dry during the summer season, and consequently of little importance for navigation or industry. The chief peninsular rivers are the Arno and the Tiber. From its sources in the Apennines, the Arno flows west for about 225 km (140 mi), through a well-cultivated valley and the cities of Florence and Pisa. The Tiber rises not far from the sources of the Arno and runs through Rome. Both the northern and peninsular regions of Italy have numerous lakes. The principal lakes of northern Italy are Garda, Maggiore, Como, and Lugano; the peninsular lakes, which are considerably smaller, include Trasimeno, Bolsena, and Bracciano.

B.

Climate

The climate of Italy is highly diversified, with extremes ranging from frigid, in the higher elevations of the Alps and Apennines, to semi-tropical along the coast of the Ligurian Sea and the west coast of the lower peninsula. The average annual temperature, however, ranges from about 11° to 19° C (52° to 66° F); it is about 13° C (55° F) in the Po Valley, about 18° C (64° F) in Sicily, and about 14.5° C (58° F) in the coastal lowland. Climatic conditions on the peninsula are characterized by regional variations, resulting chiefly from the configurations of the Apennines, and are influenced by tempering winds from the adjacent seas. In the lowland regions and lower slopes of the Apennines bordering the west coast from northern Tuscany to the vicinity of Rome, winters are mild and sunny, and extreme temperatures are modified by cooling Mediterranean breezes. Temperatures in the same latitudes on the east of the peninsula are much lower, chiefly because of the prevailing north-eastern winds. Along the upper eastern slopes of the Apennines, climatic conditions are particularly bleak. The climate of the peninsular lowlands below the latitude of Rome closely resembles that of southern Spain. In contrast to the semi-tropical conditions prevalent in southern Italy and along the Gulf of Genoa, the climate of the Plain of Lombardy is continental. Warm summers and severe winters, with temperatures as low as -15° C (5° F), prevail in this region, which is shielded from sea breezes by the Apennines. Heaviest precipitation occurs in Italy during the autumn and winter months, when westerly winds prevail. The lowest mean annual rainfall, about 460 mm (18 in), occurs in the Apulian province of Foggia in the south and in southern Sicily; the highest, about 1,525 mm (60 in), occurs in the province of Udine in the north-east.

C.

Natural Resources

Italy is poor in natural resources, much of the land being unsuitable for agriculture due to mountainous terrain or unfavourable climate. Italy, moreover, is seriously deficient in such basic natural resources as coal. The most important mineral resources are natural gas, petroleum, lignite, sulphur, and pyrites. Other mineral deposits include lead, manganese, zinc, iron ore, mercury, and bauxite. Many of these deposits are on the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. They had been heavily depleted by the early 1990s, however. Italy is rich in various types of building stone, notably marble. The coastal waters of Italy teem with fish, of which sardine, tuna, and anchovy have the greatest commercial importance. Freshwater fish include eel and trout.

D.

Plants and Animals

The flora of the central and southern lowlands of Italy is typically Mediterranean. Among the characteristic vegetation of these regions are such trees as the olive, orange, lemon, palm, and citron. Other common types, especially in the extreme south, are fig, date, pomegranate, and almond trees, and sugar cane and cotton. The vegetation of the Apennines closely resembles that of central Europe. Dense growths of chestnut, cypress, and oak trees occupy the lower slopes, while at higher elevations there are extensive stands of pine and fir.

Italy has fewer varieties of animals than are generally found in comparable areas of Europe. Small numbers of marmot, chamois, and ibex live in the Alps. The bear, numerous in ancient times, is now virtually extinct, but the wolf and wild boar still flourish in mountainous regions. Another fairly common quadruped is the fox. Among the predatory species of bird are the vulture, buzzard, falcon, and kite, confined for the most part to the mountains. There are also quail, woodcock, partridge, and various migratory species. Reptiles include several species of lizards and snakes and three species of the poisonous viper family. Scorpions are also found.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Industrial and urban pollution is a major concern in Italy. Sulphur dioxide emissions that have been linked with health problems and damage to buildings have fallen since 1970, but progress in cleaning the air has been slower than in other European countries. The situation is expected to improve as European Union (EU) directives and the United Nations (UN) Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Sulphur Protocols are implemented. Nitrogen oxide emissions are still on the rise, however, linked with continued growth of the transport sector. Electric cars are becoming a popular solution to air-quality problems in urban areas. Up to 10 per cent of Italy's forests have been damaged by air pollution. Levels of water pollution from farm chemicals and human waste are high in some rivers and in the Adriatic Sea. Extreme levels in 1988 and 1989 caused widespread eutrophication of the marine environment in this region, and the government declared an emergency.

Italy generates only about a quarter of the energy it consumes, relying mostly on imported fossil fuels. The nuclear energy programme was abandoned because of public opposition following the 1986 Chernobyl Accident in Ukraine. A number of energy options are now being used, including the use of methane to fire thermal plants, co-generation or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems, and fuel cells.

Nature conservation has been practised in Italy since Roman times. There are currently five national parks, each independently administered. In addition, there are many other types of smaller protected areas. The lack of a national system of protected areas with centralized administration has impeded efforts to create new reserves and to protect existing ones legally. Overall, protected sites cover approximately 7 per cent (1997) of the country, although the degree and type of protection varies. Italy, like many other European nations, has an ultimate goal of protecting 10 per cent of its land. Eighteen reserves have been declared, and three of these have become designated as biosphere reserves under the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program.

A nationwide forest inventory was completed in 1988. The government provides incentives for forest preservation and tree planting. About 22 per cent (1995) of the country is forested, of which 42 per cent is managed for tree harvest and only one quarter is mature forest. A significant proportion of the forests is under private management. Forest biomass has increased in recent years due to a decline in human encroachment on mountain habitats. Since the early 1980s Italy has had fairly comprehensive laws and guidelines protecting the sea and coastlines, although enforcement and implementation have been irregular. The country has ratified numerous international environmental agreements, including the World Heritage Convention and those concerning air pollution, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, law of the sea, marine dumping, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, tropical timber, wetlands, and whaling. Regionally, Italy is party to the European Wild Birds Directive and the Council of Europe (CE), under which 37 biogenetic reserves have been designated. Ten specially protected marine areas exist under the Mediterranean Action Plan. Several cross-border parks have been established with France and Switzerland.