III.

Early Political Career

Throughout his life Bismarck was a fervent supporter of the monarchy. He believed the Hohenzollern dynasty governed Prussia by divine right and that the state was part of a divine world plan. While he possessed a driving ambition, he did not seek power for its own sake or his own advantage. Nor did he use the power he acquired irresponsibly. Bismarck believed that a state’s foreign policy must be shaped by the reasonable interests of that state, not by some personal quest for power or glory. He wanted to improve Prussia’s position, but he did not seek to be the master of Europe. As for domestic affairs, Bismarck increasingly began to see himself as an impartial arbiter among conflicting interest groups. He believed that these groups, if left to their own devices, would destroy society because they could not compromise.

However, those beliefs developed slowly in Bismarck. At the beginning of his political career, Bismarck opposed any attempts to challenge the position of the landowning aristocracy; he did so in terms so blunt and forceful that he infuriated even people who agreed with him. He made, however, a friend at court. During the Revolutions of 1848 Prussia’s King Frederick William IV briefly attempted to create a unified northern Germany that included Prussia. Austria, fearing the loss of its dominant position in central Europe, threatened war. Frederick William backed down. His decision was widely criticized in Prussia, but Bismarck was one of the few who praised it. Making Prussia subordinate to an amorphous German union, he argued, was not worth a war. Frederick William responded by appointing Bismarck ambassador to the German Confederation, a league of the 39 German states, which had been established at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815).

As ambassador to the German Confederation, Bismarck established a reputation as a forceful defender of Prussian interests. His attacks on Austria in particular were so extreme that Bismarck was transferred to St Petersburg as ambassador to Russia to keep him out of trouble. The new appointment was distinguished, but its power was limited. Bismarck remained in Russia until 1862, when he was reassigned to France. He was recalled to Prussia later that same year when a domestic constitutional crisis threatened not only the stability, but the existence of the Prussian government.

The Prussian constitution of 1849 had created a bicameral (two-house) parliament while maintaining the king as the independent head of government. It did not provide any institutional means for resolving disputes between the parliament and the king. The parliament was dominated by liberals and influenced by German nationalism. Prince Regent William, who succeeded his brother in 1858 as William I when the latter suffered a series of strokes, was conservative and Prussian to the core. The clash began in 1860 when William introduced legislation calling for a major reform of the Prussian army. The parliament was not opposed to this, despite its criticism of specific elements of the reform plan, such as lengthening the period of mandatory active service from two to three years. What was important to the parliament was control of the budget. It refused to grant long-term funding for the reform without concessions from the Crown in return. William and his advisers refused, and for two years the Prussian government was deadlocked.

Politician after politician sought to reconcile the conflict, but neither William nor the parliament was interested in compromise. When Bismarck was appointed premier in 1862, it was less a tribute to his ability than a reflection of the fact that no one else wanted the job. His appointment was seen by many liberals as an act of desperation. Many expected the “wild man” to make some disastrous blunder, which would force William to come to terms with the parliament.

Instead, Bismarck surprised people with his handling of the situation. He proceeded to collect the additional taxes needed for the military reform based on the 1861 budget and without the approval of the parliament. Bismarck argued that, despite the standoff between the parliament and the king, the government must continue to function. Since the constitution did not provide for the case of an impasse and no new budget existed, he would have to apply the preceding year’s budget. To justify increasing the army, he warned that, “the great questions of the day will not be settled by speeches and majority decisions…but by blood and iron”.