II.

Land and Resources

Switzerland is one of the most mountainous countries of Europe, with more than 70 per cent of its area covered by the Alps, in the central and southern sections, and the Jura, in the north-west. The Swiss Alps are part of the largest mountain system in Europe, and are famous for their jagged peaks and steep gorges. There are several ranges within the Alps, including the Pennine range, which has Switzerland’s highest peak, the 4,634-m (15,203-ft) Dufour Peak of Monte Rosa. The Jura (derived from the Gaulish for “forest”) are much lower and smaller than the Alps, and are popular for cross-country skiing. The renowned Swiss watchmaking industry began in the Jura Mountains.

Between the two mountain systems lies the Swiss plateau, about 395 m (1,300 ft) above sea level in average elevation and some 50 km (30 mi) wide; it extends from Lake Geneva (French, Lac Léman; German, Genfersee) in the extreme south-west to Lake Constance (Bodensee) in the extreme north-east. The plateau is thickly studded with hills. Between the Alps and Jura ranges are long valleys connected by transverse gorges; one such valley is the Engadine along the Inn River in the south-east. Nearly every Swiss valley is traversed by streams, often interrupted by picturesque waterfalls, including the Staubbach Falls (about 300 m/980 ft) in the canton of Bern.

The principal river system is formed by the Rhine and its tributaries. Other important rivers are the Rhône, Ticino, and Inn. However, the Swiss rivers are not navigable for any appreciable distance. Switzerland is famous for its many lakes, particularly those of the Alpine region, known for their scenic beauty. In addition to lakes Geneva and Constance, other important lakes are the Lake of Lugano, and Lake Maggiore (at which lies Switzerland’s lowest point, 193 m/633 ft above sea level), which are not wholly within Swiss borders; and the lakes of Neuchâtel, Lucerne, and Zurich (German, Zürichsee), and the Brienzersee and Thunersee, which are entirely within Switzerland.

A.

Climate

On the plateau and lower valleys of Switzerland a temperate climate prevails, with a mean annual temperature of about 10° C (50° F). The temperature decreases about 1.7° C (3° F) for every additional 305 m (1,000 ft) of elevation. Precipitation also varies considerably according to elevation. Precipitation on the plateau and in the lower valleys is about 915 mm (36 in) annually; the higher regions generally receive much more. Much of the precipitation occurs during the winter in the form of snow; the peaks of most mountains higher than 2,743 m (9,000 ft) are snow-covered throughout the year. There are also large glaciers at higher elevations, especially in the Alps. The bise, a cold, northerly wind, predominates in the winter, and the foehn, a warm, dry south-easterly wind, predominates during the rest of the year.

B.

Natural Resources

Water-power is the chief natural resource of Switzerland; salt is the only abundant mineral resource. Agricultural opportunities are limited as most of the soil is leached and stony.

C.

Plants and Animals

Mediterranean plants and trees such as the palm, magnolia, chestnut, walnut, apple, pear, cherry, and almond grow in the lowlands and on the Swiss plateau. Highly productive forests cover about 25 per cent of the total land area, primarily at elevations between about 550 and 1,980 m (1,800 and 6,500 ft). Deciduous forests of beech, maple, and oak are characteristic below about 1,370 m (4,500 ft), and coniferous forests, primarily of pine and fir, flourish above that height. At higher elevations, the flora consists of Alpine species such as edelweiss, anemone, lily, and Swiss pines.

The chamois and marmot inhabit the Alpine regions. In the forests are fox and many species of bird, including the woodpecker and blue jay. Trout are common in the streams, and salmon are found in several rivers.

D.

Environmental Concerns

The environmental problems faced by Switzerland stem largely from the steady deterioration of natural systems, coupled with increased human impact due to tourism and rising standards of living. The most significant threats to the environment include damage to forests from acid rain, the destruction of river systems because of hydroelectric dams, pollution from agricultural chemicals such as nitrates, urban sprawl, and increased traffic. Air quality has improved in recent years due to stringent vehicle emission standards and the banning of leaded petrol and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Municipal waste-water treatment is very successful, and more than 90 per cent of the population is now served by treatment plants.

About 29 per cent (1995) of Switzerland is covered by forest, only a tiny part of which is virgin forest. Overall, protected land makes up about 18 per cent (1997) of the country, and Swiss laws are strict regarding the violation of protected areas. Certain threatened wetland biomes are especially well protected, including bogs, fens, mire landscapes, and reserves for migratory water birds. Eight sites have been designated under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and one biosphere reserve has been declared as part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Nine sites have been designated as Council of Europe (CE) biogenetic reserves. Major Swiss environmental laws are made at the level of the central government, although protected areas are usually managed by the individual cantons. Non-governmental organizations, such as the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature, play an important part in conservation, environmental policy-making, and management of protected areas.

Switzerland generates 54 per cent of its electricity from hydroelectric facilities and 40 per cent from nuclear energy, produced at four sites. Small amounts of geothermal and thermal energy are also produced. In the early 1990s, public environmental concerns prompted the country to discontinue expansion of the nuclear programme. Nuclear waste disposal is problematic because it is dangerous to transport the waste through the mountains, and there are no truly isolated regions in the country.

Internationally, Switzerland is bound by environmental agreements on air pollution, the Antarctic Treaty, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, marine life, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, tropical timber, and whaling. Regionally, Switzerland participates with its neighbours in agreements to protect the delicate environments of the Alps. The country also shares a transborder park with Italy.