II.

Land and Resources

Stretching from the Alps to the Baltic and North seas, Germany encompasses a wide variety of landscapes. Mountains, forests, hills, plains, lakes, rivers, and coastline make up this large country that borders on nine European neighbours.

Germany consists of three major geographical regions—lowland plain in the north, an area of uplands in the centre, and a mountainous region in the south. The lowlands, called the North German Plain, have a varied topography that includes several river valleys and a large heath (the Lüneburger Heide). The lowest elevation point is sea level along the coast, where there are areas of sand dunes and marshland. Off the coast are several islands, including the North Frisian Islands and the East Frisian Islands and Helgoland, in the North Sea, and Fehmarn and Rügen, in the Baltic Sea.

The eastern end of the plain provides particularly rich soil for agriculture. The central uplands region, the approximate boundaries of which are the latitude of Hanover in the north, and the River Main in the south, encompasses a complex terrain of low mountains, river valleys, and well-defined basins. The mountains include the Eifel and Hunsrück in the west, the Taunus and Spessart in the centre, and the Fichtelgebirge in the east. Much of south-western Germany is dominated by two branches of the Jura Mountains and a large forest, the Black Forest, or Schwarzwald. In the extreme south are the Bavarian Alps, which contain Germany’s loftiest peak, the Zugspitze (2,962 m/9,718 ft).

A.

Rivers and Lakes

Most of Germany’s major rivers lie in the west. The most important is the Rhine, which forms part of the borders with Switzerland and France before flowing into the Netherlands. Among the tributaries of the Rhine in western Germany are the Lahn, Lippe, Main, Mosel, Neckar, and Ruhr. Other important rivers include the Elbe, which winds from the Czech border in the south-east up to the North Sea, and the Danube, which traverses much of the south before entering Austria. The Oder, along with the smaller Neisse River, forms most of eastern Germany’s border with Poland. Germany has few large lakes. The largest is Lake Constance (Bodensee), which lies partly in Austria and Switzerland.

B.

Climate

Germany has a temperate climate, with an average annual temperature of 9° C (48° F). The mean January temperature varies from -6° to 1° C (21° to 34° F), according to location, and the average July temperature ranges between 16° and 20° C (61° and 68° F). The lowlands of the north have a somewhat warmer climate than the central and southern regions. Precipitation is heaviest in the south, which gets about 1,980 mm (78 in) of moisture per year, much of it in the form of snow. The central uplands receive a maximum of approximately 1,500 mm (59 in) of precipitation per year, and the lowlands in the north get up to about 710 mm (28 in) of moisture per year. As one of the most highly industrialized nations of the world, Germany faces serious air, water, and acid rain pollution problems.

C.

Natural Resources

Germany has large-scale deposits of several minerals. The most important is bituminous coal, which is found mainly in the Ruhr region and in the Saarland, although German industry has depleted much of the supply. The east produces large amounts of lignite, a low-quality coal. Potash is abundant in the south-west, around Freiburg, and petroleum and natural-gas deposits occur in the north, near the mouths of the Ems and Weser rivers and east of Kiel. Germany also has large deposits of rock salt, plus relatively small quantities of mercury, silver, sulphur, and lead, uranium, and zinc ores.

D.

Plants and Animals

About 30 per cent of Germany is made up of woodland, most of which is in the southern half of the country. Approximately two thirds of the woodland is composed of pines and other conifers, and the rest is made up of deciduous species such as beech, birch, oak, and walnut. Vineyards cover many of the hillsides in the south-west and along the Rhine, Mosel, and Main rivers. Western Germany is noted for its orchards. A great variety of mosses and flowering plants also exists.

Germany has a small variety of wildlife. The more common mammals include deer, wild boar, hares, weasels, badgers, wolves, and foxes. Among the few reptiles is one poisonous snake, the adder. Finches, geese, and other migratory birds cross the country in great numbers. Herring, cod, and flounder are found in the coastal waters of the North Sea and Baltic Sea, while carp, catfish, and trout inhabit the country’s rivers and streams.

E.

Environmental Concerns

Economic activity in western Germany is modern and efficient, but development in the east has long been based on heavy industry, which very frequently used outdated technology that produced much pollution. Total emissions of most pollutants are higher in the west, but per capita emissions are often higher in the east and are likely to rise further. Sulphur emissions in eastern Germany are currently five times greater than those in the west of the country, and they contribute to a significant amount of acid rain, the effects of which are often felt in neighbouring countries. Decreased emissions can be expected as European and United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Sulphur Protocols are implemented. In 1996 the eastern part of the country implemented domestic regulations. Raw sewage and industrial effluents in rivers of eastern Germany pollute the Baltic Sea. National regulations have led to greater public participation in recycling programmes in western Germany, but problems have occurred with stockpiles and depressed markets for recycled products.