I.

Introduction

Denmark, constitutional monarchy, north-western Europe, the southernmost of the Scandinavian countries. Officially the Kingdom of Denmark (in Danish, Kongeriget Danmark), it is bordered on the north by the Skagerrak, an arm of the North Sea; on the east by the Kattegat (an extension of the Skagerrak) and the Øresund (in English, The Sound), a strait linking the Kattegat and the Baltic Sea; on the south by the Baltic Sea, the Fehmarn strait, and Schleswig-Holstein, Germany; and on the west by the North Sea. Denmark comprises most of the Jutland, or Jylland, peninsula (extending about 338 km/210 mi in a north and south direction), and more than 400 islands in the Baltic and North seas. The principal islands lie between Jutland and Sweden. Sjælland (in English, Zealand) is the largest in size, followed by Fyn (in English, Funen), Lolland, Falster, Langeland, and Møn. About 130 km (80 mi) to the east of Sjælland, in the Baltic, is the Danish island of Bornholm.

Denmark has two external territories, lying in the North Atlantic Ocean: the Faroe Islands and Greenland. They first came under Danish administration in 1380; both are now internally self-governing. Lying far to the north-west of Jutland, between the Shetland Islands and Iceland, the Faroes, a group of 18 islands, were granted home rule in 1948. Greenland lies near the North American mainland, east of Canada; an integral part, from 1953, of the Danish monarchy, it was granted home rule in 1979. Excluding these territories, Denmark has an area of 43,094 sq km (16,639 sq mi); the Jutland peninsula comprises almost 70 per cent of the total area. The capital of Denmark is Copenhagen (in Danish, København).

II.

Land and Resources

Denmark proper is a lowland area, indeed its terrain is among the flattest in the world. The average elevation is just 30 m (about 100 ft) above sea level; the highest point, Yding Skovhøj in east-central Jutland, reaches only 173 m (568 ft).

Denmark’s natural landscape has been shaped by glaciation. The North European ice sheets of the last Ice Age reached their extreme limit in the country, expressed by a terminal moraine which runs east from Nissum Fiord on the west coast of Jutland towards Viborg in the centre, where it turns southward and runs along the length of the peninsula. This moraine marks the frontier between the contrasting landscapes of western and eastern Denmark. The west is a flat area of sand and gravel deposited by glacial meltwater; the coast is rimmed by dunes and sandbars. The east, slightly higher in elevation, is an area of fertile loam plains and rolling hills; the coast is indented by a series of fiords that penetrate deep into the interior. The Limfjorden, the most northerly, extends 180 km east-west across the breadth of the peninsula from the Kattegat to join the North Sea via the Thyborøn Canal. Denmark’s main islands fall within the eastern region; they have some of the country’s most fertile soils.

A.

Climate

Denmark has a temperate maritime climate with mild summers and cold, rainy winters. The mean temperature in summer is about 16° C (61° F); in winter, about 0° C (32° F). Changes in wind direction cause wide day-to-day temperature fluctuations. Average annual precipitation is about 610 mm (24 in); snowfall accounts for about 10 per cent of the total.

B.

Natural Resources

In their natural state, Denmark’s soils are low in nutrients and, because of high acidity, subject to leaching. However, millennia of cultivation and fertilization have greatly improved their quality. Nearly two thirds of the total land area of Denmark is today cultivable, but otherwise the country has few natural resources. Minerals are limited; the small mining industry is based on kaolin and granite. Discoveries of oil and natural gas in the Danish sector of the North Sea in the 1970s have cut dependence on imported energy; in 2006 oil production was estimated at 120 million barrels. The fishing industry is still of great economic significance.

C.

Plants and Animals

Relatively little wild vegetation remains in Denmark, because so much of the land is under cultivation. Forests cover about 10 per cent of the country; the main tree species are conifer, beech, oak, and ash. Several varieties of ferns and mosses common to middle Europe are also found. Roe and red deer are the only large mammals; small mammals include the fox, squirrel, and hare. There are more than 300 species of bird and many species of freshwater and salt-water fish; cod, herring, and plaice form the basis of the fishing industry.

D.

Environmental Concerns

Considered highly advanced in environmental planning and world environmental activism, Denmark is also a leader in pollution control and was the first industrialized country to establish a Ministry of the Environment. Denmark recognizes most of its protected areas as biotopes and special zones rather than strictly delimited parks and reserves. Commercial activity is strictly regulated to preserve the natural and historical value of the landscape. About 32 per cent (1997) of the country falls into protected areas.

Danes cut their overall energy consumption by 22 per cent between 1979 and 1989. Ninety-eight per cent of the nation’s sewage is treated, and sulphur dioxide emissions dropped 40 per cent between 1978 and the early 1990s. Nevertheless, challenging problems remain to be solved—agricultural run-off has recently caused harmful algal blooms in the North Sea and increasingly threatens drinking water. The country is working to clean up nearly 3,000 hazardous waste sites discovered during the 1980s.

Denmark has ratified the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and contains many designated sites. It has also ratified the World Heritage Convention. There is an immense tundra biosphere reserve in north-eastern Greenland, a Danish dependency, under the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Other international environmental agreements ratified include those on air pollution, the Antarctic Treaty, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, marine life, nuclear testing, ozone layer, ship pollution, tropical timber, and whaling. Regionally, Denmark is party to agreements to protect terrestrial and marine habitat under standards set by the European Union, Bern Convention, Helsinki Convention, Council of Europe (CE), and Nordic Council, among others.

III.

Population

Denmark’s population is extremely homogenous; 96 per cent are ethnic Danes who are closely related to the people of Norway and Sweden. There is a small immigrant population, mainly comprising other Scandinavians, Inuit, Germans, Turks, Iranians, Vietnamese, and Somalis. There is an ongoing debate over immigration levels.

A.

Population Characteristics

About 86 per cent of the Danish population lives in urban areas. Metropolitan Denmark (excluding the Faroe Islands and Greenland) has a population of 5,484,723 (2008 estimate), giving the country an overall population density of about 129 people per sq km (335 per sq mi). The population of Greenland is 56,326 (2008 estimate), and that of the Faroe Islands, 47,770 (2008 estimate).

Denmark has had a very low birth rate (average births per childbearing woman are 1.74) for many years and as a result the native-born population is ageing and declining. Immigration has so far offset losses in reproductive replacement, and the total population seems to have stabilized at 5.48 million. The upward shift in age distribution has been emphasized by Denmark’s long life expectancy: about 76 years for men; 81 years for women.

Less than half of the population lives in a traditional nuclear family, and cohabiting partners have the same rights as married couples. Denmark was the world’s first country to legalize marriage, in 1990, of homosexual couples in the form of registered partnerships, thereby granting them equal legal marital status.

B.

Political Divisions

For administrative purposes, Denmark was divided into five large regions in 2007: namely, Hovedstaden, Midtjylland, Nordjylland, Sjælland, and Syddanmark. Further reform merged the former 271 municipalities into 98 larger units.

C.

Principal Cities

Copenhagen, which lies mostly on the island of Sjælland, has a population of 501,158 (2006 estimate). Other major cities, with their populations, include the seaport of Århus, 222,559 (2003 estimate); Odense, 145,374 (2003 estimate), the capital of Fyn County; and Ålborg, 121,100 (2003 estimate), an administrative centre.

D.

Religion

Lutheranism is the established religion of Denmark; about 95 per cent of all Danes are at least nominally members of the (Protestant) Evangelical Lutheran Church. The monarch must be a member of the Church, but all other people living in Denmark enjoy complete religious freedom. There is a Muslim community comprising 2 per cent of the population.

E.

Language

Danish is the official language, spoken by most of the population. Faroese, a West Scandinavian language from the Indo-European family, is spoken by some as a mother tongue. Standard German is also a mother tongue for a minority, as are Jutish (considered by some to be a group of dialects of Danish, while others believe it to be a separate language), Skåne (considered by some to be a group of Swedish dialects, by others a group of Danish dialects, and by some a separate language), and Greenlandic Inuktitut (an Inuit language). Turkish, English, and Western Farsi are some of the immigrant languages spoken in Denmark.

F.

Education

Organized institutional education in Denmark had its beginnings in the latter part of the 11th century, with the founding of cathedral schools and grammar schools. The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479. Throughout the early modern period the educational system was administered in conjunction with the established Church. Religious instruction was, therefore, required in all state schools. In 1739, under the influence of the teacher and dramatist Ludvig Holberg, the Danish language replaced Latin as the language of instruction. An important experiment, at Sorø, by the German educational reformer Johann Bernhard Basedow was the introduction of nature study and handicrafts into the curriculum.

In the mid-19th century, the first programme of adult education was originated in Denmark at the high school in Rødding, Jutland. Under the leadership of Bishop Nikolai F.S. Grundtvig and Kristen Kold, the school became a model for similar institutions in Europe and the United States. The institute of France Nachtegall (1777-1847) and the International People’s College, founded in 1921 at Helsingør, introduced programmes of study that were also of far-reaching influence.

Recent trends in Danish education have included an expansion of rural education programmes, the extension of higher education, and the raising of teacher-training levels.

Elementary education has been compulsory since 1814 and is, for the most part, free. All children must receive education from age 7 to 16. All students have the option of a tenth year at school, and about three quarters go on to secondary schools, to complete two- or three-year courses for university admission, or to vocational schools. In the 2000-2001 school year Denmark had about 1,665 primary and lower secondary schools, with a total enrolment of 563,576 pupils. There were around 150 higher secondary schools with 75,300 students and 110 vocational schools with an estimated 160,000 pupils. The latter included agricultural schools and home economics schools; many are private, but the state contributes to their support.

In 2001–2002 an estimated 196,204 people were studying at tertiary institutions. Among the 15 university-level institutions in Denmark are Ålborg University (1974); Århus University (1928); the University of Copenhagen (1479), the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (1858), and the Technical University of Denmark (1829), all in Copenhagen; and the University of Southern Denmark/Odense University (1966). Other institutions include the Århus School of Architecture (1965), the Copenhagen Business School (1917), and the Royal Danish Conservatory of Music (1867) and Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts (1754), both in Copenhagen.

In 2002–2003, 8.6 per cent of the country’s gross national product (GNP) was spent on education.

G.

Culture

The Royal Theatre in Copenhagen presents drama, opera, and ballet under the auspices of the ministry of cultural affairs. The Royal Theatre was founded in 1748, and an annex, the New Stage, was opened in 1931. The theatre’s ballet company developed into a separate company—the Royal Danish Ballet—during the mid-1800s under the leadership of August Bournonville; today it enjoys an international reputation.

Denmark is famous for beautifully designed ceramics, silverware, glassware, porcelain, and home furnishings; the silverware of Georg Jensen and the furniture of Kaare Klint and Arne Jacobsen have been particularly acclaimed. Copenhagen has a permanent exhibition of arts and crafts where artists from all over the country may display and sell their work. See Nordic Art and Architecture.

All major cities and most provincial towns have public libraries. The Royal Library, in Copenhagen, founded in 1673, serves as the national library of Denmark (Det Kongelige Bibliotek). It contains some 2.7 million volumes and collections of music, manuscripts, maps, and pictures; the collections include 5,000 incunabula, books printed in the second half of the 15th century. See Danish Literature.

Of about 25 major museums, the most important is the Museum of National History at Frederiksborg Castle (in Hillerød), mainly built between 1600 and 1620. It contains some 10,000 exhibits. The Rosenborg Castle, Copenhagen, also a 17th-century building, holds a collection of arms, clothing, and furniture, as well as the crown jewels. The Thorvaldsens Museum, also in Copenhagen, contains the works of the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Also of note are the National Museum, in Copenhagen; the Natural History Museum and Den Gamle By, in Århus; the Arbejdsmuseum (Workers’ Museum) and the Resistance Museum, both in Copenhagen; and the Viking Ship Museum, in Roskilde.

The Royal Museum of Fine Arts, in Copenhagen, houses a collection of paintings, sculpture, prints, and drawings by Danish artists, as well as works by 19th- and 20th-century Norwegian and Swedish artists. The Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek is a museum housing important works of art in Copenhagen. The art museum in Skagen houses paintings by Danish “Golden Age” artists of the late 19th century.

The capital is the home of the Danish Radio Symphony Orchestra, Royal Orchestra, and the Royal Danish Ballet. The Danish composer Carl August Nielsen was conductor of the Royal Society and the Music Society. He wrote operas, symphonies, and music for the piano, violin, and the string quartet.

IV.

Economy

Denmark has traditionally been an agrarian country and agriculture is still a key economic sector, contributing 19.3 per cent of export earnings. Since the end of World War II, however, manufacturing, including high-tech industries, and services have gained in importance. They employ 20 per cent and around 40 per cent of the labour force respectively (1994 figures); employment in agriculture (including forestry and fishing) is 3 per cent compared with an estimated 14 per cent in 1965. Industry and services contribute respectively 26 per cent and 72.4 per cent of GDP; agriculture 1.6 per cent. Danish ships, which operate in foreign waters, contribute substantially to the economy. The country is also profitably involved in foreign investments, shipbuilding, and foreign construction. The annual national budget in 2006 included about US$99.26 billion in revenue and US$88.68 billion expenditure. GNP in 2004 was US$220 billion (World Bank), equivalent to US$52,110 per capita, one of the highest in the world.

A.

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

Danish agriculture is highly efficient. Danish governmental policy favours small landholdings; the merger of smallholdings to form large estates is discouraged by law. About 85 per cent of the farms of Denmark are less than 50 hectares (124 acres) in size and most are family owned.

Of the more than 2,237,000 hectares (some 5,527,748 acres) under cultivation, about 60 per cent are devoted to cereals, mainly barley, oats, wheat, and rye; the rest are planted with fodder and other crops, including flax, hemp, hops, and tobacco. Agricultural production in 2006 included about 4.80 million tonnes of wheat, 3 million tonnes of barley, and 130,000 tonnes of rye. The meat and dairy industries are very important and overwhelmingly export oriented. In 2006 Denmark had 12.6 million pigs, 1.57 million cattle, and 52,882 horses. In 1995 milk production was over 4.6 million tonnes; pork and bacon, 1.5 million; cheese, 311,000; and butter, 54,000.

A notable feature of agriculture in Denmark is the influence of the cooperative movement. Cooperative associations dominate the production of dairy products and bacon. A large percentage of agricultural produce is sold through marketing cooperatives. Most cooperatives are organized in national associations, which are members of the Agricultural Council, the central agency for the cooperatives in dealings with the government and industry, and in foreign trade.

Denmark’s forest resources are negligible. All forests have been government reserves since 1805. The large Danish fishing fleet (over 3,200 motorized vessels) plays a significant role in the economy. The total annual catch in 2005 was about 0.95 million tonnes, almost all of which were marine fish. The most important fish caught are herring, salmon, and cod. A dispute persists between Greenland and Iceland over fishing rights in the Denmark Strait.

B.

Mining

All Danish subsurface resources are the property of the nation. Kaolin is found on the island of Bornholm, but the deposits are not of high quality and it is used chiefly in the manufacture of coarse earthenware and brick. Natural gas and oil have been recovered from offshore North Sea fields since the 1970s; the output of crude oil had reached 375,047 barrels per day by 2004. In 1993 Denmark became a net oil exporter and expansion of oil and gas production balanced energy imports and exports by 1997. Reserves of oil are estimated at 729,618,000 billion barrels. Other commercially produced minerals are limonite, lignite, cryolite, limestone, chalk, and marl. Large quantities of salt have been discovered in Jutland.

C.

Manufacturing

Denmark’s principal industries, by value of output, are food processing, steel and metals, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, printing and publishing, machinery, electronic goods, and transport machinery production (notably marine and locomotive diesel engines). Danish furniture has been in demand throughout the world since the 1920s. Other significant industries include iron-founding, shipbuilding, brewing, and the manufacture of clothing and textiles, cement, chemicals, drugs, electronic equipment, earthenware, porcelain, glassware, stoves, bicycles, and paper.

D.

Energy

Denmark supplies more than half of its own energy requirements, thanks to North Sea oil and gas deposits and energy conservation measures. Almost all Denmark’s electricity is produced in thermal plants using coal or petroleum products. In the 1990s the country had an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 10.03 million kW, and in 2003 annual production was approximately 43.3 billion kWh. The application of wind turbines for generating electricity was pioneered in Denmark late in the 1890s and they are in widespread use there today.

E.

Currency and Banking

The monetary unit is the Danish krone, or crown, of 100 øre (5.11 kroner equalled US$1; early 2008). The National Bank of Denmark (Danmarks Nationalbank; 1818) is the bank of issue and is the centre of Danish finance, with head offices in Copenhagen. Several large commercial banks have branches throughout Denmark; although the country has more than 90 savings banks, the number of banks has declined because of a succession of mergers in the early 1990s. In a referendum held in September 2000 the Danish people voted against participation in the Euro.

F.

Commerce and Trade

In the mid-1960s West Germany replaced the United Kingdom as Denmark’s leading trading partner, a position which the reunified Germany holds today. Sweden and the United Kingdom remain among the largest importers of Danish products.

Until the early 1960s livestock, processed meat (chiefly ham), and dairy products constituted the bulk of exports. Since then industrial exports have grown steadily and now exceed agricultural exports which, in 1994, were valued at more than US$39,600 million, with imports at about US$34,000 million. Major Danish imports are machinery, primary metals and metal products, transport equipment, fuels and lubricants, and various consumer goods.

G.

Labour

Almost half the Danish population is employed; the service and manufacturing sectors are the main employers with about 40 per cent and 20 per cent of the labour force respectively. Unemployment was 5.2 per cent in 2004. At least three quarters of women work, making up 46 per cent of the workforce. In the 1960s and 1970s the country suffered severe labour shortages, which were partly offset by the immigration of guest workers, mainly from Turkey, former Yugoslavia, and Pakistan. Most skilled workers, technicians, and handicraft workers are union members. The Danish Confederation of Trade Unions had about 1.34 million members in 2007.

H.

Transport

Ferries and bridges are characteristic features of the Danish transport system. Ferries link Jutland and the islands and also serve Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Norway. Two bridges connect Jutland and Fyn, and another runs between Sjælland and Falster. In July 2000, Queen Margrethe and King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden officially opened the Øresund Strait Bridge, a new bridge and tunnel link between Denmark and Sweden. The 16 km (10 mi) bridge connects Copenhagen to the Swedish port of Malmö and consists of a four-lane motorway and two rail tracks.

Denmark has 2,212 km (1,374 mi) of railways, more than 80 per cent of which is operated by the Danish State Railways. The main rail route leads south through Jutland to Hamburg, Germany. There is also an extensive road system, totalling about 71,847 km (44,644 mi) of paved roads. In 2002 there were 360 passenger cars per 1,000 people. The major air carrier operating in Denmark is SAS (Scandinavian Airlines System). Other airlines include DAT (Danish Air Transport), Sterling Airlines, and Cimber Air. The international airport is at Kastrup, near Copenhagen.

I.

Communications

Denmark has a proud tradition of independence, objectivity, and freedom of speech. The country does not have a sizeable tabloid press, and the tone and content of broadcasting is of high quality. The most popular daily newspapers are Berlingske Tidende (circulation 156,000), B.T. (123,000), Dagbladet Børsen (52,000), Ekstra Bladet (168,000), and Politiken (143,000), all published in Copenhagen, and Morgenavisen Jyllands Posten (180,000) published in Viby. Radio and television programmes are produced by the state-owned Radio Denmark; commercials are barred, and set owners pay annual licence fees. A commercial television network began broadcasting in 1988. More than 4.3 million television receivers and 7 million radios were licensed in 2000. The government telephone service owns and operates long-distance lines, but most local services in Denmark are operated by private companies. In 2005 there were about 619 telephones in use per 1,000 people.

V.

Government

Denmark is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy, governed under a constitution of 1953. Margrethe II succeeded to the throne on the death of her father, Frederick IX, in 1972.

A.

Executive and Legislature

National executive power is nominally vested in the Danish sovereign, but in practice is exercised by a Cabinet led by the prime minister. The prime minister, appointed by the sovereign, must have the support of a majority of the legislature.

Legislative power in Denmark is vested jointly in the sovereign and in a unicameral legislature, the Folketing or diet. The concurrence of sovereign and Folketing is necessary for the enactment of legislation, the declaration of war, and the signing of peace treaties. The maximum legislative term is four years. The 179 members of the Folketing are popularly elected; the Faroe Islands and Greenland are each represented by two members.

Elections are conducted on the basis of proportional representation: this is meant to reflect truly all voters’ opinions; minority governments are often the result. All Danes over 18 years of age who are permanent residents are eligible to vote and to stand for election to the Folketing. Measures passed by the legislature may be submitted to a referendum with the consent of one third of the members; if at least 30 per cent of eligible voters reject the measure, it is defeated. The most recent general election took place in November 2007.

B.

Judiciary

Judicial power in Denmark is vested in 82 lower courts presided over by individual judges; two high courts, each with a panel of judges; and a Supreme Court, which sits in Copenhagen.

C.

Local Government

Local government was reorganized in January 2007 with the 13 counties and 275 municipalities being replaced with five regions and 98 municipalities.

D.

Political Parties

Denmark has many political parties. However, the left-of-centre Social Democratic Party (SD; Socialdemokratiet i Danmark), founded in 1871, has long been the largest. Other leading parties include the centre-left Liberal Party (V; Venstre—Danmarks liberale parti), the moderate-centre-right Conservative People’s Party (KF; Konservative Folkeparti), the moderately left-wing Socialist People’s Party (SF; Socialistisk Folkeparti), and the conservative and nationalist Danish People’s Party (DF; Dansk Folkeparti).

E.

Health and Welfare

Denmark introduced one of the world’s first welfare state systems in the 1930s and remains among the most advanced. The modern social welfare system provides health insurance, covers more than 95 per cent of the Danish population, and provides free medical care and hospitalization, and payment for some essential medicines and some dental care. Most hospitals are municipal. In 2004 there were 273 people per doctor. The infant mortality rate was 4 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2008. In 1990, 6.3 per cent of the country’s GDP was spent on health care. The retirement age is 67; pension rates are linked to the cost-of-living index. Although the system is costly (it is the main reason for Denmark’s high taxes), Danes have strongly resisted calls from the political right for a shift to incorporate more private insurance. Other benefits include extensive sickness, accident, unemployment, and disability benefits, social assistance and provisions for the care of children, including daytime care for the children of working couples.

F.

Defence

Denmark abandoned its traditional neutrality after World War II and became a founding member of NATO. In 1988 it became the first NATO country to include women in front-line units. In 1992 it assumed observer status of the Western European Union (WEU) but has refused to become a full member of the organization.

The armed forces in 2004 totalled 21,180. Conscription exists, though only around one in four males serve any time in the military because of a complex “lottery” system that excludes many. Recruits receive between 4 and 12 months of military training. The army maintains a strength of about 12,500 troops. The navy includes a small fleet and a coastal-defence force and has about 3,800 members. The Royal Danish Air Force, which numbered 4,200 troops, is tactically under NATO command. There are about 70,450 reservists and each service maintains a home guard of volunteers aged up to 50 years. The army home guard totals 53,000; the navy, 4,200; and the air force, 8,000 volunteers.

G.

International Organizations

Denmark is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and NATO.

VI.

History

Knowledge of Danish antiquity is derived largely from archaeological research. Some historians believe that Danes inhabiting the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula migrated to the Jutland peninsula and the adjacent islands in the Baltic Sea in the 5th and 6th centuries. Evidence of major public structures—including a canal, a long bridge, and the ramparts across the neck of Jutland now called the Danevirke—in the 8th century attests to the presence of a fairly strong central authority in the peninsula on the eve of the Viking age. Within a century of their first raid on the British Isles in the 780s, the Danes were masters of the part of England that became known as the Danelaw. Under King Harold Bluetooth in the 10th century, political consolidation increased and Denmark was Christianized. Harold’s son, Sweyn I, conquered all of England in 1013-1014. Sweyn’s son, Canute II, ruled England (1016-1035), Denmark (1018-1035), and Norway (1028-1035).

A.

Expansion and Prosperity

In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, the Danes expanded to the east. They conquered the greater part of the southern coastal areas of the Baltic Sea, establishing a powerful and prosperous realm twice the size of modern Denmark. In this era of expansion, feudalism in Denmark reached its zenith. The kingdom became wealthier and more powerful than it had ever been. Most of the country’s once-free peasantry saw their rights reduced. Marked economic progress was made in this era, principally in the development of the herring-fishing industry and in animal husbandry. This progress was the basis for the rise of merchants and craftsmen, and of a number of guilds.

Growing discord between the Danish Crown and the nobility led to a struggle in which the nobility, in 1282, compelled King Eric V to sign a charter, sometimes referred to as the Danish Magna Carta. By the terms of this charter, the Danish Crown was made subordinate to law, and the assembly of lords (Danehof) was made an integral part of the administrative institutions.

A temporary decline in Danish power after the death of Christopher II in 1332 was followed, in the reign (1340-1375) of Waldemar IV, by the re-establishment of Denmark as the leading Baltic power; the Hanseatic League of German merchants and cities controlled trade, however.

B.

The Kalmar Union and the Reformation

In 1380 Denmark and Norway were joined in a union under one king, Olaf III, a grandson of Waldemar IV, and with Norway came Iceland and the Faroe Islands. After Olaf’s death in 1387, his mother, Margaret I, reigned in his stead. In 1389 she obtained the crown of Sweden and began the struggle to unite the three realms, a struggle which was completed successfully in 1397, with the formation of the Union of Kalmar. Denmark was the dominant power, but Swedish aristocrats strove repeatedly—and with some success—for Sweden’s autonomy within the union. The Kalmar Union lasted until 1523, when Sweden won its independence in a revolt against the tyrannical Christian II led by Gustav Vasa, who was elected King of Sweden as Gustav I in that year.

Also in 1523 Christian II was driven from the Danish throne. There followed a period of unrest, as Lübeck, the strongest Hanseatic city, interfered in Danish politics. With help from Sweden’s king, Lübeck’s interference was ended and Christian III consolidated his power as King of Denmark. During his reign (1534-1559) the Reformation triumphed in Denmark, and the Lutheran Church was established as the state Church. At this time the Danish kings began to treat Norway as a province rather than as a separate kingdom. Commercial and political rivalry with Sweden for domination of the Baltic Sea resulted in the indecisive Nordic Seven Years’ War (1563-1570) and the War of Kalmar (1611-1613) between Sweden and Denmark.

The intervention in the 1620s of Christian IV in the religious struggle in Germany on behalf of the Protestant cause led to Danish participation in the Thirty Years’ War. Continued rivalry with Sweden for primacy in the north led to the Swedish Wars of 1643-1645 and 1657-1660, in which Denmark was badly defeated and lost several of its Baltic islands and all of its territory on the Scandinavian peninsula except Norway.

C.

Absolute Monarchy and the Nobility’s Decline

The economic repercussions of these defeats had far-reaching consequences for Denmark. The growing commercial class, hard hit by the loss of foreign markets and trade, joined with the monarchy to curtail the power and privileges of the nobility. In 1660, capitalizing on the nobility’s unpopularity after its poor military performance in the Swedish Wars, Frederick III carried out a coup d’état against the aristocratic Council of the Realm. The monarchy, which until then had been largely dependent for its political power on the aristocracy, was made hereditary; in 1661 it became absolute. The tax-exemption privileges of the nobility were ended, and nobles were replaced by commoners in Denmark’s administration. Important administrative reforms were also introduced.

In the 18th century Denmark began the colonization of Greenland, which had come under Danish rule in 1380; Danish trade in East Asia expanded; and trading companies were established in the West Indies, where Denmark acquired several islands. In 1788 constraints on the liberties of the peasants were abolished, and land redistribution was initiated, breaking up the great estates of the nobility. In the following decades an agricultural enclosure movement greatly enhanced the production of foodstuffs; by 1813, 60 per cent of the Danish peasants had become landowners.

D.

Napoleonic Wars

During the Napoleonic Wars, efforts by England to blockade the European continent led to naval clashes with Denmark. Copenhagen was twice bombarded by the British fleet, first in 1801 and again in 1807, and the Danish navy was destroyed. As a result, Denmark was largely cut off from Norway, and the Danish monarch reluctantly sided with Napoleon. By the Peace of Kiel (1814) Denmark ceded Helgoland to the British and Norway to Sweden; in return, Denmark was given Swedish Pomerania, which it later exchanged for Lauenburg, previously held by Prussia. Economically, the Napoleonic Wars were disastrous for Denmark, causing the loss of important markets overseas, inflation at home and ultimately national bankruptcy. Economic stability was not re-established until after the central bank was founded in 1818. Even then low international grain prices kept the agricultural sector in crisis until 1828.

E.

Constitutional Monarchy

Denmark’s economic problems helped underpin the growing demand for constitutional government which led to the proclamation of the constitution of 1849. Denmark became a constitutional monarchy, civil liberties were guaranteed and a bicameral legislature, which was to share legislative power with the Crown, was established. German nationalism in Schleswig and Holstein (see Schleswig-Holstein), both hereditary duchies held by the kings of Denmark, presented the Danes with serious problems in the wake of the Revolutions of 1848. The two duchies had long been objects of dispute between the Danish and German monarchies. With diplomatic aid from Russia, Denmark had prevailed in a first test of strength in mid-century, but in 1864 Prussia and Austria went to war with the Danes to prevent the incorporation of Schleswig into Denmark’s territory and constitutional structure. The Danes were defeated and lost possession of the two duchies and of other territory.

In 1866 the Danish constitution was revised, making the upper chamber, dominated by the great landowners (Landsting), more powerful than the lower house (Folketing). Politics took a more conservative turn, but during the last decades of the 19th century, commerce, industry, and finance flourished; dairy farming and the cooperative movement were much expanded; and the working class grew in numbers. After 1880 the newly organized Social Democratic Party played a major role in the Danish labour movement and in the struggle for a democratic constitution. The principle of parliamentary government was recognized in 1901, ending a long political deadlock between the Crown and the Landsting on one side and the Folketing, on the other.

F.

Modern Denmark

Denmark was neutral during World War I. In 1917 Denmark sold the Virgin Islands, in the West Indies, to the United States. Constitutional reforms enacted in 1915 established many of the basic features of the present governmental system. Universal suffrage went into effect in 1918. In the same year Denmark recognized the independence of Iceland, but continued to control the foreign policy of the new state, while the Danish king remained Iceland’s head of state. In 1920 North Schleswig was incorporated into Denmark as a result of a plebiscite carried out in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; the southern part of Schleswig voted to remain in Germany.

G.

World War II

In May 1939 the Danish government signed a 10-year non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany. In April 1940, however, Germany occupied Denmark; the Danish government was nevertheless able to maintain much control over the country’s legal and domestic affairs until 1943. There was a small but dedicated resistance movement in occupied Denmark, and many Danish citizens helped Denmark’s 6,000 Jews to escape to neutral Sweden on the eve of their arrest and deportation. Great Britain occupied the Faroes and in 1941 the United States established a temporary protectorate over Greenland, building various weather stations, air bases, and early warning stations in that country. In 1944 Iceland, following a national referendum, severed all ties with Denmark and proclaimed itself a sovereign republic.

H.

Post-War Denmark

Three years after the end of World War II Denmark granted home rule to the Faroes. It joined NATO in 1949 and subsequently became a member of several other international organizations, including the European Free Trade Association (1959) and the European Economic Community (now European Union) (1972).

In 1953 a revised constitution was adopted, creating a unicameral parliament, permitting female accession to the throne and incorporating Greenland as an integral part of Denmark. Greenland was granted home rule in 1979.

Four decades of dominance by the Social Democratic Party ended with the 1968 elections. Hilmar Baunsgaard, leader of the Radical Liberal Party, formed a coalition government that lasted until 1971, when Jens Otto Krag, a former Social Democratic prime minister, was returned to office. King Frederick IX died in 1972 and was succeeded by his daughter, Margrethe II. Later that year Krag resigned and was replaced as prime minister and party leader by Anker Jørgensen.

The Social Democrats suffered losses in the elections of late 1973, and Poul Hartling, a Liberal, formed a minority Cabinet. Following elections in early 1975, however, Jørgensen returned to power, also at the head of a minority government. He retained his leadership until September 1982, when Poul Schlüter, a Conservative, became head of a right-of-centre coalition. Elections in January 1984 increased the membership of the coalition, which retained power in the elections of September 1987, May 1988, and December 1990.

I.

Environmental Concerns

In 1985 the Folketing voted against any inclusion of nuclear power plants in national energy plans, committed the government to work actively to establish a Nordic nuclear-free zone. The moves were resisted by the government and such disputes in the Danish polity over NATO-related policies damaged Denmark’s relationship with the organization.

Good relations were largely restored by 1988 after a general election fought largely on the issues of defence policy and membership of NATO. The destruction of lobster colonies in the strait between Denmark and Sweden in 1986 and other ecological disasters in 1988 resulted in the passage of some of the world’s most rigorous environmental protection measures by the Folketing.

Denmark’s influence on environmental issues has continued abroad; links with Baltic former Soviet bloc states are being enhanced in an attempt to persuade them to reduce air pollution. In February 1998 Denmark became the first nation to accept the NATO proposal to include the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland.

J.

Immigration and EU Issues

Prime Minister Schlüter resigned in January 1993 in the wake of a scandal concerning immigration visas. By 1995 the former justice minister Erik Ninn Hansen was given a four-month suspended sentence for his part in this scandal. Following a widely publicized survey that revealed an increase in public concern over immigration, a new interior minister, intent on strengthening immigration rules, was appointed in 1997.

The immigration issue remains central to politics in Denmark. Copenhagen was the scene of serious rioting in November 1999 when a Danish-born man of Turkish origin was ordered to leave the country as he had failed to apply for citizenship.

Following Prime Minister Schlüter’s resignation a coalition government was formed in 1993, with Social Democrat Poul Nyrup Rasmussen as the prime minister. The coalition survived the 1994 elections, albeit with a reduced majority, reflecting popular discontent over unemployment and concern over the future of the welfare state. At the end of 1996 the Centre Democrats withdrew from the coalition, but pledged continuing support for Rasmussen’s government, from outside the coalition. In the general election of February 1998 the Social Democratic Party increased its slim majority by 1 per cent (from 35 to 36 per cent of seats), as did the Liberals (from 23 to 24 per cent).

The political scene in Denmark in the 1990s was dominated by issues surrounding further integration with the EU. In 1992 Danish voters narrowly rejected the Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty), which provides for increased political and monetary integration within the EU. After modifications to the pact, exempting Denmark from the provisions on monetary union, European citizenship, and defence, the Danes voted their approval in 1993. Opponents of further integration with the EU mounted a legal challenge to the validity of the Maastricht Treaty; the Supreme Court rejected the challenge in 1998, which attempted to sue Prime Minister Rasmussen for having signed the Treaty. The Court stated that in the event of a conflict between EU law and the constitution, the latter would assume precedence. In the May 1998 referendum, the Danish people approved the Amsterdam treaty on European union by a narrow majority.

In January 1999, Denmark exercised its agreed opt-out from the launch of the single European currency, the Euro. In September 2000 the electorate rejected the Euro at the first referendum to be held by an EU member state on the issue. This vote was especially significant as all the main Danish political parties, along with business leaders, had campaigned for a “yes” vote.

After an increase in popularity and support for the prime minister Poul Rasmussen following the September 11 terrorist attacks, he called a snap election in November. In a campaign dominated by the issues of immigration and asylum, Rasmussen’s gamble on his popularity backfired with the nation shifting to the right politically in an election with a high turnout of 87 per cent. The centre-right coalition of the Liberal Party (headed by Anders Fogh Rasmussen) and the Conservative Party won most votes. Gains were also made by the far-right Danish People’s Party. Poul Rasmussen resigned and was replaced as prime minister by Anders Fogh Rasmussen (no relation). As promised in their election campaign, the new government’s policies included the toughening of policy on immigration and introducing a new Cabinet post of Minister of Immigration and Integration. Denmark took over the presidency of the EU from July to December 2002.

In elections held in Greenland in December, most seats were taken by the Siumut party and the Inuit Ataqatigiit party, both favouring independence from Denmark. The Greenland government plans to hold a referendum on the issue by 2005.

The 2005 general election, held in February, saw a victory for Liberal Party leader Anders Fogh Rasmussen and he established another ruling coalition alongside the Conservatives, with 94 seats in total. He became the first Danish Liberal leader to win a second consecutive term. The country immediately faced a crisis after a series of cartoons, which satirically depicted the Islamic prophet Muhammad, was published in the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten. Protests took place around the Muslim world, with numerous protestors being killed; Danish goods and services were also boycotted. The newspaper apologized but the crisis drove a wedge between Muslims and those who argued the case for the freedom of the press.

Rasmussen called an early election for November 2007 and campaigning centred on the economy and the tightening of immigration laws. Rasmussen's party once more won most seats in parliament, securing 46 as opposed to the Social Democrats with 45 and the Danish People's Party with 25. Rasmussen announced that he wished to broaden the appeal of the governing coalition and entered into talks with the centrist New Alliance, a party led by Naser Khader, a Muslim member of parliament.